Sixteen pieces of ochre recovered from Middle Paleolithic sites in Crimea and mainland Ukraine illustrated Neanderthal use of pigments over roughly 70,000 years, according to a study in Science Advances. An international team led by Francesco d’Errico of the University of Bordeaux examined the artifacts with scanning electron microscopy and portable X-ray fluorescence to determine how they were shaped, maintained, and reused.
Each fragment showed intentional modification—grinding, scraping, scoring, or flaking. Three items stood out: a complete yellow ochre crayon, the broken half of another yellow crayon, and a red ochre piece from a larger crayon-like object. The intact crayon measured about five to six centimeters, its point still sharp after more than 40,000 years; microscopic inspection revealed chisel marks that indicated repeated resharpening.
“It was a tool that had been curated and reshaped several times, which makes it very special,” said d’Errico, according to New Scientist. A second object preserved engraved and polished surfaces, while the third held deliberately inscribed lines. Wear patterns on the elongated crayon suggested repeated rubbing against soft material under pressure.
The researchers concluded that the curated nature of the ochre pieces, their deliberate shaping, and the preservation of tool marks pointed to roles in communication, identity expression, and knowledge transmission. Chemical analysis linked several fragments to an iron-rich outcrop about 1.5 kilometers from the sites, implying purposeful collection and transport.
“It tells us so much just from those small bits of ochre. It really brings those individuals into touching distance,” said Emma Pomeroy of the University of Cambridge, according to New Scientist. “You only maintain a point on a crayon if you want to make precise lines or designs,” added April Nowell of the University of Victoria, the outlet reported.
The discoveries join earlier Neanderthal artistic evidence—57,000-year-old finger carvings in France and 175,000-year-old stalagmite circles—reinforcing that symbolic behavior predated Homo sapiens. The authors wrote that ochre use evolved slowly among different human species rather than appearing suddenly with modern humans.
The preparation of this article relied on a news-analysis system.